The History Of Glass
A. Glass has been used by the man from his earliest origins. Historians found that obsidian, a type of natural glass, has formed in places, like in the mouth of a volcano, as a consequence of intense heat of an eruption melting island, which was used as tips for spears. In 4000 BC, archaeologists discovered evidence of man-made glass, which took the shape of glazes used for covering stone beads. With the covering of sand core and the layer of molten glass, the first hollow glass container was made.
B. From the 1st century BC, the most common method to make glass containers is by doing glass blowing. As the raw materials contain impurities, the glass that was made at that time is highly coloured. Methods to create colourless glass were developed during the first century AD, and it was then tinted by adding the colouring materials. Romans are the ones who took the secret of glass making across Europe, during this century. But, they protected the glass making skills and technology, still it spread throughout Europe and the Middle East after their empire was ruined in 476 AD. From the 10th Century, the Venetians earned reputation on making the glass bottles with technical skill and artistic ability and most of the craftsmen in the italy’s cities set up the glassworks throughout Europe.
C. When the English Manufacturer George Ravenscroft (1632 – 1683) invented the lead crystal glass, it became a major mark in the history of glass. He added the lead in the raw materials during the process of glass making to counter the clouding effect that occurs in blown glass. The new glass he introduced has the following qualities: softer, easier to decorate, higher refractive index, has the brilliance and beauty and it has become an important glass to the optical industry. Optical lenses, astronomical telescopes, microscopes have become possible only because of the invention of Ravenscroft.
D. In Britain, after rescinding the Excise Act in 1845, the modern glass industry began to boom. Heavy taxes were placed on the amount of glass melted in glasshouses, before that time and increased continuously from 1745 to 1845. In 1851, at the London’s Great Exhibition, Joseph Paxton’s Crystal Palace marked the beginning of glass as a material used in the building industry. This path breaking new building has increased the usage of glass in public, domestic and horticultural architecture. As science and technology began to advance and develop, glass manufacturing techniques also improved.
E. From the year of 1887, when HM Ashley introduced a machine in Castleford, Yorkshire, England, which is capable of producing 200 bottles per hour. It is produced more than three times faster than any previous production methods. In 1907, Michael Owens, who is the founder of the Owens Bottle Company, developed the first fully automated machine in the USA and installed it in its factory. Owen’s invention has the capability to produce 2,500 bottles per hour. Rapid development occurred, but, during the first world war, Britain cut off from the essential glass suppliers, and glass became part of the scientific sector. Before this, glass had been seen as a craft instead of precise science.
F. Currently, Glass making is a big business. It has become a modern, hi-tech industry functioning in an intensely competitive market where quality, design and service levels are important to maintaining market share. Modern glass plants have the capacity of making millions of glass containers per day in a variety of colours, green and brown remaining the most popular. Glass has become inseparable from modern life. You can see it in almost every aspect of our lives – our homes, our cars. Many products have glass packaging, most of the beverages sold in glass, as are many
foodstuffs, medicines and cosmetics.
G. Glass is the perfect material for recycling and concern for green issues, glass bottles and jars are becoming more popular as with growing consumers. Glass recycling is a good thing for the environment. It saves used glass containers rather than disposing it into landfill. Both fuel and production expenses can be saved because recycled glass needs less energy to melt than raw materials. The need for quarrying materials minimised by the recycling and preserves the valuable resources.
Questions 1 – 7 This reading passage has seven paragraphs, A–G. Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter, A – G, as your answer to each question.
1. Mention of the first fully automated machine produces 2,500 bottles per hour
2. A way to counter the clouding effect which occurs in blown glass during the process of glass making
3. Obsidian, a type of natural glass, is used for tips in spears.
4. The repeal of the Excise Act in 1845 elevated the modern glass industry into big business
5. Glass recycling is good for the environment
6. The secret of glass making is spreaded across Europe by the Romans
7. Mention of glass and modern life
Questions 8 – 13 Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading Passage?
Write TRUE, FALSE and NOT GIVEN
8. Archaeologists found the evidence of man-made glass in 400 BC
9. Glass made in the first century is very highly coloured as it contains impurities in raw materials
10. Romans spreaded the glass making skills and technologies throughout Europe
11. The Romans went to war with the Greeks to resolve the conflict caused by the glass
12. The invention of Ravenscroft made possible optical lenses, astronomical lenses and microscopes
13. There is no usage of glass in modern life
All about the Otters
A. Otters have long, thin bodies with small legs, making them perfect for pushing through thickets or searching in tunnels. An adult male can grow to be up to 4 feet tall and weigh up to 30 pounds. Females are usually smaller than males. The nose of the Eurasian otter is the smallest of the otter species, with a shallow ‘W’ shape. The tail (or rudder, or stern) of an otter is thick at the base and thins out as it approaches the tip, where it flattens. When swimming quickly underwater, this is an element of the propulsion system. Otter fur is made up of two types of hair: robust guard hairs that form a waterproof outer layer, and dense and fine under-fur that serves as an otter’s thermal underwear. Grooming is required to keep the fur in good condition. When otter fur is exposed to saltwater, it loses its waterproofing and insulating properties. Freshwater ponds are crucial to otters living on the coast for this reason. They crawl on the ground to rub dry against vegetation after swimming and washing off the salts in ponds.
B. On land, the scent is used for hunting, communication, and detecting danger. The sensitivity of an otter’s sense of smell is thought to be equivalent to that of a dog. On land, otters have tiny eyes and are likely short-sighted. They do, however, have the capacity to change the shape of the lens in the eye, making it more spherical and therefore overcoming water refraction. Otters can hunt fish by sight in clean water with good light. The eyes and nostrils of the otter are high on its head, allowing it to see and breathe even while the rest of its body is submerged. Except for steering, the cotter holds its legs against the body underwater and flexes its hind end in a sequence of vertical undulations. River otters have webbing that runs the length of each digit, but not all the way to the end. The webs of giant and sea otters are considerably more noticeable, but the Asian short-clawed otter has none since it hunts for shrimp in ditches and rice fields, so it doesn’t require the speed. Otter ears are small to save space, but they have extremely keen hearing and are protected by valves that close them against water pressure.
C. The habitats suited for otters are limited by a number of restrictions and preferences. Water is essential, and rivers must be large enough to sustain a healthy fish population. Because they are such quiet and wary creatures, they will seek areas where man’s activities do not have a significant impact. Of course, there must be no other otter in the area – something that has only recently become more important as populations begin to recover. Coastal otters have a substantially larger food source, and males and females may have a range of only a few kilometres of shoreline.
Because the male range overlaps with two or three females – this is a good thing! Otters will consume whatever they can get their hands on, including sparrows, snakes, and slugs, according to reports. Crayfish, crabs, and aquatic fowl are the most prevalent prey, aside from fish. Small mammals, most typically rabbits, but also moles, are occasionally taken.
D. Where food is plentiful, Eurasian otters will breed at any time. Cubs are born in the spring in regions where the conditions are more severe, like Sweden, where the lakes remain frozen for much of the winter. This guarantees that they are fully matured before the next round of bad weather arrives. Cubs are born in the summer in the Shetlands, when fish are more plentiful. Some otters do not breed every year, despite the fact that they are capable of doing so. This, too, is contingent on food availability. Other factors, such as the female’s food range and quality, may have an impact. With the exception of Lutra canadensis, whose embryos may undergo delayed implantation, Eurasian otters have a 63-day gestation period. To minimize interruptions, otters usually give birth in more secure dens. When mummy is away feeding, the cubs’ nests are lined with bedding to keep them warm.
E. To minimise interruptions, otters usually give birth in more secure dens. To keep the cubs warm while the mother is gone feeding, the nests are lined with bedding (reeds, waterside plants, grass). The litter size ranges from one to five. Coastal otters generate smaller litters for some unexplained reason. They open their eyes at five weeks, a tiny 700g cub. They are weaned onto solid food at the age of seven weeks. They leave the nest at ten weeks, blinking for the first time in daylight. They ultimately meet the water and learn to swim after three months. They start hunting after eight months, while the mother still gives a lot of food. She can finally chase them all away with a clear conscience after nine months, and relax — until the next fella shows up.
F. The British otter’s condition was recognised in the early 1960s, but the primary cause was not determined until the late 1970s. Pesticides like dieldrin and aldrin were first used in agriculture and other industries in 1955; these chemicals are extremely persistent and have been linked to massive population losses in peregrine falcons, sparrow hawks, and other predators. Pesticides found their way into river systems and the food chain, contaminating microorganisms, fish, and eventually otters, with each step increasing the toxic concentration. The pesticides were taken out starting in 1962, but while some species rebounded rapidly, otter populations did not, and continued to decline well into the 1980s. Habitat damage and road deaths were most likely to blame. When it comes to populations that have been fragmented by the rapid extinction in the 1950s and 1960s, the loss of just a few otters in one location can make an entire population unviable and lead to extinction.
G. Otter populations are rebounding across the United Kingdom, with populations increasing in the few regions where they remained, and expanding from those areas into the rest of the country. This is virtually completely due to legislation, conservation initiatives, halting and reversing the erosion of appropriate otter habitat, and captive breeding programme reintroductions. Many people believe that releasing captive-bred otters is a last resort. The reasoning is that if they don’t have sufficient habitat, they won’t survive after being released, but if they do, natural populations should be able to expand into the area. Reintroducing animals into a fragmented and vulnerable population, on the other hand, may provide just enough drive for it to stabilise and spread rather than extinction. This is what the Otter Trust was able to achieve in Norfolk, where the otter population was estimated to be as low as twenty animals in the early 1980s. The Otter Trust has completed its captive breeding programme, which is fantastic news because it means the programme is no longer required.
Questions (1 – 4) Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading Passage?
TRUE FALSE NOT GIVEN
1. An otter’s stern is thick until it reaches the tip, where it flattens.
2. It is believed that the sensitivity of an otter’s sense of smell is comparable to that of a bat.
3.Otter populations are recuperating throughout the United Kingdom and Europe, with populations strengthening in the few remaining regions and expanding from there to the rest of the region.
4. Because they are such timid and apprehensive creatures, they will seek out regions where human activity has little to no effect.
Questions (5 – 10) The reading Passage has seven paragraphs A-G Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter A-G, in boxes 1-9 on your answer sheet. NB You may use any letter more than once.
5. The conflicting opinions on how to preserve.
6. The fit-for-purpose characteristics of otter’s body shape
7. A reference to an underdeveloped sense
8. An explanation of why agriculture failed in otter conservation efforts
9. A description of how otters regulate vision underwater
10. A description of how baby otters grow
Questions (11 – 13) Answer the questions below. Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/ OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.
11. Which type of otters has the shortest range?
12. What affects the outer fur of otters?
13. What skill is not necessary for Asian short-clawed otters?
Cutty Sark: The Fastest Sailing Ship Of All Time
The 19th century was a period of great technological development in Britain, and for shipping, the major changes were from wind to steam power, and from wood to iron and steel. Clippers, three-masted ships meant to transport goods around the world, although some also carried passengers, were the fastest commercial sailing vessels of all time. From the 1840s clippers dominated world trade, until the 1869 opening of the Suez Canal, when steam propulsion replaced sail. Only the Cutty Sark, which is now on exhibit in Greenwich, southeast London, has survived relatively unscathed although many were built. The name Cutty Sark comes from the Scottish poet Robert Burns’s poem ‘Tam O’Shanter’. A
witch called Nannie chases a farmer named Tam, who is wearing a ‘cutty sark’ – which is a Scottish name for a short nightdress. Witches cannot cross water as per the legend and Burns’s poem, so this was a rather strange choice of name for a ship. Cutty Sark was built for a shipping company owned by John Willis in Dumbarton, Scotland, in 1869. To carry out construction Willis chose a new shipbuilding firm, Scott & Linton, and ensured that the contract with them put him in a very strong position. The firm was forced out of business, and the ship was finished by a competitor in the end.
Between China and Britain, Willis’s company was active in the tea trade, where speed could bring shipowners both profits and prestige. So to make the journey more quickly than any other ship Cutty Sark was designed in such a way. In 1870, on her maiden voyage, she set sail from London, with huge amounts of goods to China. In 4 months on the journey back to London she returned laden with tea. As a result of bad winds and various misfortunes, Cutty Sark never lived up to the high expectations of her owner. In 1872 on the same day, the ship and a rival clipper, Thermopylae, left the Chinese port. Cutty Sark gained a lead of over 400 miles crossing the Indian Ocean, but then her rudder was broken in stormy seas, making her impossible to steer. Cutty Sark reached London a week after Thermopylae since the ship’s
crew had the difficult task of repairing the rudder at sea.
As the speed and cargo capacity increased, steam ships posed a growing threat to clippers. Opening the Suez Canal in 1869 had a serious impact because Cutty Sark was launched the same year. The steam ships could make use of the quick, direct route between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. But the canal was of no use to sailing ships, which needed the much stronger winds of the oceans, and so had to sail a far greater distance. Steam ships could reduce the time to travel between Britain and China by almost 2 months. Cutty Sark lost its importance between tea traders by 1878, tea traders weren’t interested in. She then took on the much less prestigious work of carrying any cargo between any two ports in the world. In 1880, violence in the ship caused the replacement of the captain with an incompetent drunkard who robbed the crew’s wages. He was suspended from work, and a new captain was appointed. Transporting wool from Australia to Britain marked a turnaround and the beginning of the most successful period in Cutty Sark’s working life.
In just under 12 weeks, one journey was completed beating every other ship sailing that year. Richard Woodget, the ship’s second captain, was a skilled navigator who made the most of his ship and crew. Cutty Sark was a sailing ship that relied on the southern hemisphere’s strong trade winds, and Woodget took her further south than any previous captain, pushing her dangerously close to icebergs off South America’s southern tip. His bet paid off, and for
the next ten years, the ship was the quickest in the wool trade.
Cutty Sark became less profitable as steam ships became more competitive in the 1890s as she neared the end of her useful life. Her name was changed to Ferreira once she was sold to a Portuguese company. She travelled the world for the following 25 years, transporting various cargoes. In 1922, she was severely damaged in a gale and was towed to Falmouth Harbour in southwest England for repairs. Retired sea captain Wilfred Dowman, and owner of a training vessel, recognised her and attempted to purchase her, but failed. She returned to Portugal and was purchased by yet another Portuguese firm. Dowman, on the other hand, was adamant, and he proposed a high price, which was agreed, and the ship was returned to Falmouth the following year, with her former name restored. Cutty Sark served as a training ship for Dowman, and she continued to do so after he died. In 1954, she was transported to Greenwich Dry Dock for public exhibition because she was no longer required. Cutty Sark was damaged by fire in 2007 and again in 2014, yet it now receives a quarter-million visitors each year.
Question 1-4 Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading Passage? Write
YES , NO or NOT GIVEN
1. Clippers were the fastest commercial sailing vessels of all time.
2. The name Cutty Sark comes from the Swedish poet Robert Burns’s poem ‘Tam O’Shanter’.
3. Richard Woodget was Cutty Sark’s second captain.
4. Cutty Sark weighed 2 tonnes.
Question 5-9 Look at the following Questions 5-9 and the list of the statements below. Match each statement with the correct one Write the correct letter A-F on your answer sheet. NB You may use any letter more than once.
5. Opening of Suez Canal
6. Clippers dominated the world trade
7. Cutty Sark started it voyage
8. Cutty Sark was severely damaged in gale.
9. Captain of Cutty Sark was replaced.
A 1878 B 1922 C 1869 D 1870 E 1840 F 1880
Question 10-14 Complete the sentences using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
10. The ________ was a period of great technological development in Britain.
11. Cutty Sark was built for a shipping company owned by ________ in Dumbarton, Scotland, in 1869.
12. In 1872 on the same day, the ship and a rival clipper, ________, left the Chinese port.
13. Transporting wool from ________ to Britain marked a turnaround and the beginning of the most successful period in Cutty Sark’s working life.
14. Cutty Sark served as a ________ for Dowman, and she continued to do so after he died.
